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Ruth
Benedict (1887-1948), much more than Franz Boas, would define the aims of
Boasian anthropology for postwar America.
When
Franz Boas died in 1942, the leadership of his school of anthropology passed to
Ruth Benedict and not to Margaret Mead. This was partly because Benedict was
the older of the two and partly because her book Patterns of Culture (1934) had already assumed a key role in
defining Boasian anthropology.
The
word "define" may surprise some readers. Wasn't Boas a Boasian? Not
really. For most of his life he believed that human populations differ innately
in their mental makeup. He was a liberal on race issues only in the sense that
he considered these differences to be statistical and, hence, no excuse for systematic
discrimination. Every population has capable individuals who should be given a chance
to rise to the limits of their potential.
He
changed his mind very late in life when external events convinced him of the
need to fight "racism," at that time a synonym for extreme nationalism
in general and Nazism in particular. In 1938, he removed earlier racialist
statements from his second edition of The
Mind of Primitive Man, and the next year Ruth Benedict wrote Race: Science and Politics to show that racism
was more than a Nazi aberration, being in fact an ingrained feature of American
life. Both of them saw the coming European conflict as part of a larger war.
This
is one reason why the war on racism did not end in 1945. Other reasons included
a fear that extreme nationalism would lead to a second Hitler and a Third World
War. How and why was never clear, but the fear was real. The two power blocs were
also competing for the hearts and minds of emerging nations in Asia and Africa,
and in this competition the West felt handicapped. How could it win while
defining itself as white and Christian? The West thus redefined itself in
universal terms and became just as committed as the Eastern bloc to converting the
world to its way of life. Finally, the rhetoric of postwar reconstruction
reached into all areas of life, even in countries like the U.S. that had emerged
unscathed from the conflict. This cultural reconstruction was a logical outcome
of the Second World War, which had discredited not just Nazism but also nationalism
in general, thereby leaving only right-wing globalism or left-wing globalism.
Ironically, this cultural change was weaker in the communist world, where people
would remain more conservative in their forms of sociality.
Ruth
Benedict backed this change. She felt that America should stop favoring a
specific cultural tradition and instead use its educational system to promote
diversity. To bring this about, she had to reassure people that a journey
through such uncharted waters would not founder on the shoals of unchanging
human nature. This fear had been addressed in Patterns of Culture (1934). Inspired by Pavlov’s research on
conditioned reflexes, she argued that people are conditioned by their culture
to think, feel, and behave in a particular way. This pattern assumes over time such
a rigid form that even a student of anthropology will assume it to be innate:
He does not reckon with the fact of other social arrangements where all the factors, it may be, are differently arranged. He does not reckon, that is, with cultural conditioning. He sees the trait he is studying as having known and inevitable manifestations, and he projects these as absolute because they are all the materials he has to think with. He identifies local attitudes of the 1930’s with Human Nature […] (Benedict, 1989, p. 9)
She
argued that such behavioral traits cannot be innate, since they assume
different patterns in different human populations and in different time periods
of a single population. Our potential for social change is thus greater than
what we imagine, being limited only by the range of behavior that exists across
all societies. Because we underestimate this potential, we resist social change
on the grounds that it would violate a nonexistent human nature:
The resistance is in large measure a result of our misunderstanding of cultural conventions, and especially an exaltation of those that happen to belong to our nation and decade. A very little acquaintance with other conventions, and a knowledge of how various these may be, would do much to promote a rational social order. (Benedict, 1989, p. 10)
In
contradistinction to Boas, who believed that human populations differ innately
in various mental and behavioral traits, she argued that cultural evolution had
long ago replaced genetic evolution:
Man is not committed in detail by his biological constitution to any particular variety of behaviour. The great diversity of social solutions that man has worked out in different cultures in regard to mating, for example, or trade, are all equally possible on the basis of his original endowment. Culture is not a biologically transmitted complex. (Benedict, 1989, p. 14)
In
short, humans have turned the tables on evolution. Instead of being changed by
their environment via natural selection, they redesign it with the tools
provided by their culture. To a large degree, humans create their own
environment:
The human animal does not, like the bear, grow himself a polar coat in order to adapt himself, after many generations, to the Arctic. He learns to sew himself a coat and put up a snow house. From all we can learn of the history of intelligence in pre-human as well as human societies, this plasticity has been the soil in which human progress began and in which it has maintained itself. [...] The human cultural heritage, for better or for worse, is not biologically transmitted. (Benedict, 1989, p. 14)
Since
human nature is everywhere the same, whatever works in any other culture ought
to work in America’s, and this greater diversity should pose no serious problem.
This argument would eventually be topped off by American can-doism: if other
cultures can cope with some diversity, we can do even better!
Much more deviation is allowed to the individual in some cultures than in others, and those in which much is allowed cannot be shown to suffer from their peculiarity. It is probable that social orders of the future will carry this tolerance and encouragement of individual difference much further than any cultures of which we have experience. (Benedict, 1989, p. 273)
Such
social change would be resisted by Middletown—originally a pseudonym for
Muncie, Indiana in two sociological studies, and later a synonym for whitebread
small-town America.
The American tendency at the present time leans so far to the opposite extreme that it is not easy for us to picture the changes that such an attitude would bring about. Middletown is a typical example of our usual urban fear of seeming in however slight an act different from our neighbours. Eccentricity is more feared than parasitism. Every sacrifice of time and tranquillity is made in order that no one in the family may have any taint of nonconformity attached to him. Children in school make their great tragedies out of not wearing a certain kind of stockings, not joining a certain dancing-class, not driving a certain car. The fear of being different is the dominating motivation recorded in Middletown. (Benedict, 1989, p. 273)
Conclusion
Ruth
Benedict wrote well, so well that any flaws are easily missed. Much of her
reasoning revolved around the concept of cultural conditioning. Just as a dog
will salivate on hearing the tinkling of a bell, if associated with food, so
people will come to respond unthinkingly and in the same way to a situation
that occurs over and over again. Such behavior may seem innate, yet it isn't.
This part of her reasoning is true, but it is also true that natural selection
tends to hardwire any recurring behavioral response. Mental plasticity has a
downside, particularly the risks of responding incorrectly to a situation when
one is still learning. It's better to get things right the first time. In sum,
conditioned reflexes and innate reflexes both have their place, and one doesn't
preclude the other ... for either dogs or humans.
Benedict
seems on firmer ground in saying that humans are uniquely able to change the
world around themselves. Instead of having to adapt biologically to our
environment, we can invent ways to make it adapt to us. It's this manmade
environment—our culture—that does the evolving, not our genes. This view used
to be widely accepted in anthropology and has been proven false only recently. We
now know that cultural evolution actually caused genetic evolution to
accelerate. At least 7% of the human genome has changed over the last 40,000
years, and most of that change seems to be squeezed into the last 10,000, when
the pace of genetic change was more than a hundred-fold higher (Hawks et al.,
2007). By that time, humans were no longer adapting to new physical
environments; they were adapting to new cultural
environments. Far from slowing down genetic evolution, culture has speeded it
up by greatly diversifying the range of circumstances we must adapt to.
Benedict
was right in foreseeing a time when tolerance would become a virtue. Yet,
strangely enough, Middletown America is no more tolerant today than it was in
her time. Americans are simply obeying a new set of rules, whose first
commandment is now "Thou shalt not be intolerant." People are still fearful of being different
from their neighbours. It's just that the fears have another basis. People are
still insulted for being different. It's just that the insults have changed.
"Filthy pervert" has given way to "Dirty homophobe."
Mistrust of the stranger has been replaced by mistrust of those who are not
inclusive. Pierre-André Taguieff has described this new conformity in France:
[...] over the last thirty years of the 20th century, the word "racism" became an insult in everyday language ("racist!" "dirty racist!"), an insult derived from the racist insult par excellence ("dirty nigger!", "dirty Jew!"), and given a symbolic illegitimating power as strong as the political insult "fascist!" or "dirty fascist!". To say an individual is "racist" is to stigmatize him, to assign him to a heinous category, and to abuse him verbally [...] The "racist" individual is thus expelled from the realm of common humanity and excluded from the circle of humans who are deemed respectable by virtue of their intrinsic worth. Through a symbolic act that antiracist sociologists denounce as a way of "racializing" the Other, the "racist" is in turn and in return categorized as an "unworthy" being, indeed as an "unworthy" being par excellence. For, as people say, what can be worse than racism? (Taguieff, 2013, p. 1528)
It's
hard to believe that the sin of racism did not yet exist in Ruth Benedict's
day. The word itself was just starting to enter common use. At most, there was
a growing movement for people to be more tolerant, and even that movement was
very limited in its aims. "Tolerance" had a much less radical
meaning.
Interestingly,
Benedict did touch on the reason for Middletown's intolerance. In her book, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword (1946),
she explained that human cultures enforce social rules by means of shame or
guilt. You feel ashamed if your wrongdoing is seen by another person. In
contrast, you feel guilty even if nobody else has seen it, or even if you
merely think about doing wrong. Although all humans have some capacity for both
shame and guilt, the relative importance of one or the other varies
considerably among individuals and among human populations. "Shame
cultures" greatly outnumber "guilt cultures," which are
essentially limited to societies of Northwest European origin, like Middletown.
But
how does a guilt culture survive? If a few individuals feel no guilt as long as
no one is looking, they will have an edge over those who do. Over time, they
will proliferate at the expense of the guilt-prone, and the guilt culture will
become a shame culture. It seems that this outcome does not happen because the
guilt-prone are always looking for signs of deviancy in other individuals,
however trifling it may seem. We have here the "broken windows"
theory of law enforcement: if a person
tends to break any rule, however minor, he or she will likely break a major
one, since the psychological barrier against wrongdoing is similar in both
cases. The guilt-prone will judge such people to be morally worthless and will
ultimately expel them from the community. Intolerance is the price we pay for
the efficiency of a guilt culture.
Today,
this mechanism has been turned upon itself. The new social rule—intolerance of
intolerance—will, over the not so long term, dissolve the mental makeup that
makes a guilt culture possible. Benedict did not foresee this outcome in her own
time. Middletown was too set in its ways, too monolithic, too well entrenched.
At most, one could hope for a little more leeway for the socially deviant. A
few bohemians here, a few oddballs there ...
Ruth
Benedict saw Middletown as a difficult case, particularly its extreme guilt
culture, and she drew on the language of education and psychotherapy to frame
this difficulty in terms of long-term treatment:
[…] there can be no reasonable doubt that one of the most effective ways in which to deal with the staggering burden of psychopathic tragedies in America at the present time is by means of an educational program which fosters tolerance in society and a kind of self-respect and independence that is foreign to Middletown and our urban traditions. (Benedict, 1989, pp. 273-274)
They [the Puritans] were the voice of God. Yet to a modern observer it is they, not the confused and tormented women they put to death as witches, who were the psychoneurotics of Puritan New England. A sense of guilt as extreme as they portrayed and demanded both in their own conversion experiences and in those of their converts is found in a slightly saner civilization only in institutions for mental diseases. (Benedict, 1989, p. 276)
By
the time of her death in 1948, Boasian anthropology had become fully mobilized
for the war on racism. This mobilization had begun in response to the rise of
Nazi Germany but was soon extended to a much larger enemy that included America
itself, as seen in the increasingly radical meanings of “racism” and “tolerance.”
Only a determined, long-term effort would bring this enemy to heel.
References
Benedict,
R. (1989 [1934]). Patterns of Culture,
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Benedict,
R. (2005 [1946]). The Chrysanthemum and
the Sword. Patterns of Japanese Culture, First Mariner Books.
Hawks,
J., E.T. Wang, G.M. Cochran, H.C. Harpending, & R.K. Moyzis. (2007). Recent
acceleration of human adaptive evolution. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 104, 20753-20758.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2410101/
Taguieff, P-A. (2013). Dictionnaire historique et critique du
racisme, Paris: PUF.
15 comments:
Boas made enemies by being loudly against WW1, and that is why his choice, Benedict, didn't become department chair.
The abolition of the international slave trade and Catholic emancipation came when Britain was up against a powerful enemy: Napoleon. So there is a good historical precedent for the Cold War leading to similar reforms. I wonder though if the hearts and minds being appealed to were not those of the domestic population of middle Americans which was the real power that America had to muster for a struggle with communism.
"'Our potential for social change is thus greater than what we imagine, being limited only by the range of behavior that exists across all societies. Because we underestimate this potential, we resist social change on the grounds that it would violate a nonexistent human nature'"
"Elgin Williams in a value analysis of patterns of culture finds Benedict implicitly condemning war, using absence of violence as a value criterion in a culture's handling of sex relations, condemning initiation ordeals which are part of an authoritarian technique, and warning against despising the body". Ethical Judgment: The Use of Science in Ethics
here
.
I think Benedict saw anthropology as being able to discover a scientific recipe for satisfying human needs in a harmonious society without war, She aimed at promoting change toward an all encompassing ingroup. Everyone was to be objective about their own culture, but to understand other cultures more sympathetically. Guilt would explain why only whitebred middle Americans felt that they had to play by Benedict's rules and critique their own culture.
Today, this mechanism has been turned upon itself. The new social rule—intolerance of intolerance—will, over the not so long term, dissolve the mental makeup that makes a guilt culture possible.
I don't think your prediction is correct here. After all, the communists were unable to eradicate Christianity in Russia and they had almost four generations.
There is already lots of resistance to the PC brigade and the term racist is losing its sting.
More over, it is genetic, IMO.
Sean,
The Cold War was marketed to Middletown America as a struggle to uphold traditional values. Ironically, it became a means to advance a radical agenda by redefining America in universal, ideological terms, i.e., as a set of propositions. Because of the Cold War, America is no longer a vehicle for a particular cultural tradition.
Wanderer,
Soviet Communism began as a revolutionary project but gradually became more and more conservative. This was partly because of WWII, which forced Stalin to make concessions to the Orthodox Church and rehabilitate many traditional aspects of Russian life. In general, the communists learned from many of their mistakes. Free love and abolition of the family were soon found to be unworkable, as were many other social experiments of the 1920s. The revolution brought many outsiders into the corridors of power, but in time they became insiders who realized they had to deal with the consequences of their half-baked ideas.
I wouldn't assume that the same thing will happen in the West. Economically, our elites can coast for perhaps another decade or two without having to face the consequences of their nutty ideas. Another problem is that many of these insiders still perceive themselves as "outsiders."
" This part of her reasoning is true, but it is also true that natural selection tends to hardwire any recurring behavioral response."
{{citation needed}}
If a learned response with no particular innate inclination is just as fit as a unlearned response or a learned response with innate inclination, there will be only random fluctuation. It's not like natural selection is a guy that then decides that it's good enough to be permanent and creates the genes to make it so, and give them an upper hand.
At the same time, while the innate propensity may seem advantageous in general due to more "reliability", not requiring learning, it seems that in human evolution specifically it may have been reversed. Several scholars speculate that human conceptualization was significantly driven by environmental instability, favoring more flexible, "adaptive" minds, not minds specialized to a more rigid behavior.
"At least 7% of the human genome has changed over the last 40,000 years, and most of that change seems to be squeezed into the last 10,000, when the pace of genetic change was more than a hundred-fold higher (Hawks et al., 2007). "
If I recall, the theory/finding was that it was due to recent RELAXED selection, not in increased rate in selective divergence. The evidence of recent adaptation to cultural environments is very limited, perhaps only lactase persistence. The finding seems more compatible with the result of an unprecedented generalist adaptation that allows for more genetic drift than it's possible in specialist species, living under a significantly more severe genetic scrutiny from natural selection, either in purifying or divergent selection.
I don't like much the extremes of PCness, just as I don't like PIness just for the sake of sounding "edgy" and cool. I'd not be surprised it it eventually turned against itself in a way and then "racist" became the "r-word". There was a South Park episode along these lines, "the nigger guy".
But I think that the main problem with PCness isn't any intolerance against intolerance -- far from that, I'm 100% with Popper -- but rather that in the eagerness to deny "scientific racism" they end up sort of "accepting" its moral premises; the "scientific claims" ought to be wrong, or else they're right in everything. When that's not the case. Just as one accepts that there are individual inequalities, one could accept racial inequalities, even in a manner that's factually wrong (more generalized/racially homogeneous than they could be), and still not be proposing anything vile, in practices/policies.
While that's probably true for a good part of those who like to label themselves "racial realists", I still think it's at best a "ivory tower"/cool-edgy-politically-incorrect position. Little, if anything, is lost with a position of "scientific denial" of races that doesn't really denies any biological diversity, but just stresses the complexity and impreciseness of traditional labels -- thus arguably providing a richer, less "denier", picture of human biodiversity. And still it's not uncommon to see whine and mockery, like saying that the usage of "population" or "clines" is nothing but a PC "euphemism" for "races". And also, undeniably, some of it sounds like a stealth/trojan strategy, not unlike "ID" for creationism, but only with a different abbreviation.
I think "encephalization" got auto-spell-corrected into "conceptualization" in the last post.
Dr. Frost, et. al.
This probably belongs in another thread but I’ve been thinking about your shame vs. guilt distinction.
I’m sure the countries of Northwestern Europe are genetically distinct in many ways but they are also the Protestant countries. Have you considered the possibility of Protestantism’s role in creating the guilt culture of Northwestern Europe?
"If a learned response with no particular innate inclination is just as fit as a unlearned response or a learned response with innate inclination, there will be only random fluctuation"
How can this be so? If you need to avoid something extremely dangerous be it physical (don't step on snakes) or social (don't get a reputation as a misfit) you would have to take big risks to learn that.
An environment with lots of novel dangerous situations would create greater general intelligence to work out in the mind's eye where dangers might lie, but being a misfit is always the same easily identifiable danger.
I thought that Ruth Benedict was Margaret Mead's lesbian lover, and if so, either one could have worn the mantle of Boas.
Sean, there is nothing wrong with seeing other cultures more sympathetically. The problem is that cultures (and their biological correlates, races) are supposed to be ignored except in the most superficial sense. In practice, moral universalism demands the reform of the 'other' and the other is supposed to be grateful for this, or they'll get their 'human rights' good and hard.
Morally, anti-racist people judge others as individuals whilst finding the collective also appealing - race divides people, whilst the 'human race' construct brings all these people together. And if you discount realities and constructs that divide people, you justify things like open borders at the expense of your own kind.
This then is the real argument. It isn't about whether other cultures deserve respect, its about whether people are interchangeable in spite of all the differences, like we were living in an episode of Star Trek or something.
At the global level, this perspective is consistent with moral aggression against less developed peoples. A look at 20th C history shows people who believe in 'one human race' have not an ounce of moral high ground when it comes to respecting the rights of other cultures outside of western moralist control.
Christ when you think of the things other peoples do that we might think of as inhumane (or, inhuman) the only way you can respect them is by viewing them as the 'other' the same way we do other species of animals. If we judged them as though they were us we'd have to justify their punishment and this is what we see just about every time Moslems or Russians or Nigerians get mentioned in the news.
Between the rapid evolution of Homo sapiens since the Pleistocene and our nature as an overlapping series of hybrids between hominins, I find it hard not to sneer when someone starts pushing the 'human race' line.
I think it is inaccurate to say that race is the bio-correlate of culture.
Culture is modus operandi, it's a process and product of evolution that begins before HSS. So sure, isolated popns develop different cultures but...
race is a term that was created to describe distinct visible differences in morphology.
Thus, ethnicity is a more accurate bio-correlate of culture, and vice versa.
Boas is Jewish. I am wondering here has anybody heard about the requirements of Jewish Messianism? It requires two things, a World Utopia and World Unity, i.e. all the races have to disappear.
Prof. Frost, can you not see that the Jews and their friends are skewing reality for the sake of their deracination ideology? Isn't this what International Socialism is? Jewish ideology to accomplish the platform for Jewish Messianism?
The whole point of race deconstruction and deracination of political correctness is to further the goals of Jewish messianism. What about Rosa Luxemburg's pamphlet "The Nationalities Question" or Karl Kautusky on the same subject? I think Prof. Frost that your whole field is being skewered by people with an agenda that don't want race to be recognized.
National Socialism only arose in response to International Socialism. Communism/Bolshevism/Marxism/Democratic Socialism/Fabian Socialism/ are all International meaning the doing away of races. Ruth Benedict was only a goyim dupe in this. None of these people are doing science--they are propagandizing. When most of Academia is Marxist, then most of the field becomes junk.
Prof. Frost, why don't you do a post on the slanting of information for the sake of accomplishing World Unity?
It's silly to presume that being an "assimilationist" and a prewar "Germanophile" meant that genetic conflicts of interest didn't exist and didn't inform Boas' views.
It would be one thing if Boas had supported Hitler and Nazi Germany. It's quite another when his assimilationism and devotion to a particular body politic is contingent upon his perception of that body politic's service to his genetic interests.
I like the way Peter writes and I think he presents his arguments well. However, I don't understand the connection between the history of intellectual movements and the study of human biodiversity. Humans are not so hard-wired that any single ethnic group can only come up with one set of ideas otherwise we wouldn't see communism and democracy co-existing amongst European populations.
Anon,
Nazi Germany didn't distinguish between assimilated and unassimilated Jews. So it's not surprising that Franz Boas became an anti-Nazi.
Question: if all Jews are devoted to their genetic interests, why do so many outmarry? And why are so many childless?
Anon,
I'm as much a cultural determinist as I am a genetic determinist. I also feel it's important to explain why anti-racism has come to hold such a central place in our moral universe. This is a very recent development. There are people still alive who remember when the word "racism" scarcely existed.
Nazi Germany didn't distinguish between assimilated and unassimilated Jews. So it's not surprising that Franz Boas became an anti-Nazi.
Yes, that was my point. Whatever else might be said of Nazi Germany, nobody can deny that it had integrity with respect to German identity. Hence there was a genetic conflict of interest with people like Boas, and this informed the views of people like Boas. If he was really pro-German, he would have supported Nazi Germany, at least with respect to its integrity regarding German identity. But he wasn't. His assimilationism and support for Germany was contingent upon how amenable it was perceived to be to other genetic interests.
Question: if all Jews are devoted to their genetic interests, why do so many outmarry? And why are so many childless?
Outmarrying can be as much a feature of genetic competition as genocide. And of course having children isn't the only way to serve genetic interests.
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